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Qing Dynasty

Qing Dynasty (1644-1911AD) was the last feudal dynasty in Chinese history drew to a close established by the Manchu People (Nuzhen People). Overview the 268 years of reign, there were altogether 11 emperors in addition to the ruling Emperor Taizong Huang Taiji in Shenyang.

What were the ups and downs of Qing Dynasty?

In the later times of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), there appeared an eminent leader named Nurhachi in northeastern China. Under his rule, the Nuzhen people developed quickly. In 1616, Nurhachi established Later Jin Dynasty in Hetuala (today’s Xinbin County, Fushun, Liaoning Province), and broke away from the Ming Dynasty.
Although the Ming Dynasty had frequently sent troops to attack the Later Jin Dynasty, all attacks ended in failure. In the spring of 1625, Nurhachi decided to move the capital to Shenyang in spite of the opposition of many Beiles (prince of a commandery or prince of the second rank) and senior ministers. In 1636, Huang Taiji, son of Nurhachi, changed the state title into “Qing” in Shenyang, and then began to attack the Ming Dynasty.

map of Qing

In 1644, Li Zicheng, a leader of a peasants uprising near the end of the Ming Dynasty, captured Beijing, which marked the end of Ming Dynasty. Wu Sangui, commander of Shanhai Pass, brought the Qing army through the pass in the name of avenging the Ming emperor. At that time, Huang Taiji had died, and his son Fulin, Emperor Shizu of the Qing Dynasty, captured Beijing in May of 1644 with the assistance of Prince Regent Duoergun. Four months later, the Qing Dynasty moved the capital to Beijing, and began its sovereign south of Shanhaiguan Pass.
During the rule of Emperor Shizu, he was mainly occupied with eradicating the remainders of the Ming Dynasty. After 18 years on the throne, Wu Sangui led an army to once and for all have the last forces of the Ming Dynasty eliminated, thus the Qing Dynasty actually reunified China. Wu Sangui, Geng Zhongming and Shang Kexi, the surrendered generals from the Ming Dynasty, were ennobled as feudal princes of Yunnan, Fujian and Guangdong respectively for their contributions towards destroying the remnants of the Ming Dynasty.
In 1662, Emperor Shunzhi died, and his son Xuanye ascended the throne under the assistance of Ao Bai, Suo Ni and Suke Saha, with the reign title of “Kangx”. Emperor Kangxi was one of the outstanding emperors in Chinese history. He ruled the empire for 61 years, the longest ruling time of all emperors. The Qing Dynasty developed quickly during his ruling period.
In Emperor Kangxi's early years, the state power was in the helm of those regents, among whom Ao Bai's force was the strongest. At the age of 16 years old, Emperor Kangxi succeeded in getting rid of Ao Bai as well as his party and began to deal with state affairs personally.
Summer Mountain-Resort in Chengde

After grasping the state power, Emperor Kangxi pacified the rebellions of the “three vassals”, the Zhungeer tribe and the Tibet people. He also had the Zheng family of Taiwan submit to him. In addition, he beat back the attack of the Russian army in northeastern China, and signed a contract named the Sino-Russian Treaty of Nibuchu. At the same time, to steady the sovereign over the minority groups, Emperor Qianlong strengthened the relations with Mongolian people and Hui minority people by making Chengde Mountain Resort as Xanadu. By doing so, the sovereign of the Qing Dynasty was strengthened.

Economically, Emperor Kangxi abolished the “Land Enclosuring” system practiced since the Qing Dynasty entered Beijing, encouraged reclaiming wasteland, constructed irrigation projects, reduced the common people's taxes, and let every peasant have his land. His measures rapidly sped up the development of China's agriculture greatly.
After Emperor Kangxi, his successor Emperor Yongzheng was also a wise emperor of the Qing Dynasty and during his rule the Qing Dynasty continued to develop prosperously. Based on the sovereign of Emperor Yongzheng, Emperor Qianlong took some effective measures to further develop the social economy in his 60-year ruling period.
During the reign of Emperor Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong, people's lives were greatly improved, and the Qing Dynasty reached its pinnacle in history appropriately named “Heyday of Kangxi and Qianlong”.
After Emperor Qianlong, the Qing Dynasty gradually declined. The later successors Emperor Jiaqing and Daoguang didn't have the enterprising spirit, and they just kept reusing the old policies to continue their sovereign.
From Emperor Daoguang's rule in 1812, some western countries had started to invade China's economic markets. They opened the door to China using opium which poisoned countless Chinese people and created a large outflow of silver. To solve the problem, Emperor Daoguang appointed Lin Zexu as Prime Minister to take charge of banning opium-smoking and opium trade in Guangdong Province. After coming to Guangzhou, Lin Zexu cracked down the tobacconists and confiscated over two million tons of opium. He then publicly destroyed all the opium on the beach of Humen. It was known as “Destruction of opium in Humen”.

In 1840, Britain started the First Opium War against China, and forced the Qing Dynasty to sign the first of many unequal treaties with them beginning with the “Nanjing Treaty”. Learning from Britain, France and America also forced the Qing Dynasty to sign another two unequal treaties called the “Treaty of Whampoa” and “Treaty of Wanghia”. Thereafter, the door to China was forced open by the great western powers.

summer palace

In 1851, Emperor Xianfeng came to the throne, and the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom revolted at the same year. Hong Xiuquan, leader of the Taiping army, rose in Jintian Village of Guiping County, Guangxi Province in the name of “God Worshippers”. Two years later, the Taiping army captured Hanyang (Hanyang District of Wuhan City, Hubei Province), Yuezhou (Yueyang City), Hankou (Hankou District of Wuhan City, Hubei Province), Nanjing and several other important southern towns. In 1856, Hong Xiuquan shaped the government system and established Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, making Nanjing as the capital. However, because of the internal split and the suppression of the Qing Dynasty, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom came to its doom day quickly in 1864.
From 1856 to 1860, Britain, France and some other western courtiers launched the Second Opium War against China. During the war, the united force of Britain and France captured and burnt the Old Summer Palace, an imperial royal summer resort. At the same time, the Qing Dynasty was forced to sign several other unequal treaties with the western powers again, through which China's important trading ports were further opened and a large area of land was ceded.
In 1862, Emperor Xianfeng died of illnesses, and Prince Zaichun took over the throne, who was also known as Emperor Tongzhi. Empress Dowager Cixi killed Su Shun and other regents, and began her nearly half a century's reign behind a curtain. During that period of time, China was defeated by France and Japan in succession, and forced to sign some other unequal treaties. Especially after the failure of the Sino-Japanese War, the signing of Treaty of Shimonoseki made China cede the island of Taiwan and pay a large amount of money to Japan to cover their military costs.
Following Emperor Tongzhi, the state power was still at the helm of Empress Dowager Cixi when Emperor Guangxu came to the throne. In 1898, Emperor Guangxu prepared to carry out capitalist reforms in China, attempting to improve China's backward situation. He accepted the advice of Kang Youwei and Lian Qichao and announced to change the systems in the hope of enriching and strengthening the state. But the reform only lasted for 103 days because of the hindrance caused by Empress Dowager Cixi and some trusted senior ministers. It was historically named “Hundred Days' Reform”..
Yuan Mingyuan

After the failure of the reform, the united forces of eight countries–Britain, America, France, Russia, Japan, German, Italy and Australia started another war against China, and captured Beijing. Empress Dowager Cixi and Emperor Guangxu escaped out of Beijing in a hurry. In the end, China signed Xinchou Treaty with the eight countries, according to which China had to open more trading ports, cede land and pay costs to them.

With the decline of the Qing Dynasty, more and more patriots began to organize together in order to overthrow Qing Dynasty throughout China, among whom Dr. Sun Yat-sen's “Revolutionary United Society of China” was the most influential one. In 1911, the Wuchang Uprising broke out in Wuhan City, Hubei Province. Two months later, over ten provinces of China declared independence, which caused the Qing Dynasty to disintegrate quickly.
On January 1st of 1912, the Republic of China was established in Nanjing, and Sun Yat-sin was elected as the temporary president. Then, on 12th of February of the same year, Emperor Fuyi was forced to abdicate, which indicated the end of the Qing Dynasty and also the end of dynastic period of China.
What were the achievements of Qing Dynasty?

Near the end of Qing Dynasty, many intellectuals still kept pursuing a way out for the country. In modern history, both the negation of the Chinese tradition and the Westernization of Chinese culture went through three steps, namely, the Westernization Movement in the latter half of the 19th century, the Reform Movement of 1898 and the May 4th Movement of 1919.

the-ruins-of-Yuan Mingyuan

The modern Chinese history began with the Opium War (1840-1842), but China hardly underwent its real process of modernization until the reformation begun in the late 1970s. Before the Opium War, a prominent feature of Chinese civilization was its relative isolation for thousands of years from the outside world. Because of such isolation, feudal China had been left far behind.
After the Opium War, many Chinese intellectuals recognized that Western civilization had an advantage over Chinese civilization, so they called for learning from the West in order some day to defeat it. Following the model of Lin Zexu who advocated: “Pay the Western foreigner back in his own coin”, such intellectuals as Zen Cuofan, Zuo Zongtang and Li Hongzhang launched the Westernization Movement to introduce techniques of Western capitalist production.
Their intent was to modernize in order to preserve the rule of the Qing government. They built shipyards, textile mills and so on; especially they developed the Northern Navy, whose total tonnage ranked first in Asia and eighth in the world. On the surface the Qing seemed to be developing rapidly in the area of technology and manufacturing, which is to say that it seemed to have begun its modernization. But in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, the Northern Navy of the Qing dynasty was defeated. The loss of this war was considered to be the failure of the Westernization Movement as a way of modernizing China, for the Northern Navy was the comprehensive embodiment of that Movement.

12 animals' head

The fact that the grand Middle Kingdom was defeated by a so-called little “uncivilized” country awakened more Chinese. Many people felt this to be really galling and humiliating. But after drawing a lesson from this bitter experience, the Chinese began to realize that Western civilization included not only material civilization, but also political and economic systems, and that the latter were even more important. As a result, such intellectuals as Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao and Tan Sitong initiated the Reform Movement of 1898. They wanted to modernize China by copying the Western political and economic systems which had been learned by the Japanese before the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895.

What they did were, for example, to reform the old government organization, to better staff and simplify administration, to abolish the ancient Chinese examination system, to build new Western-style schools, to permit people to freely set up newspapers and societies, to establish General Bureaus of Railways, Mines, Agriculture, Industry and Business. They even recommended an English man, Timothy Richard, as an adviser of Emperor Guangxu. Finally, however, this was bitterly strangled by conservative feudal forces because the Empress Dowager Cixi felt that the movement threatened her power, and some staff wanted to retain their stature.

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